Essay Phonology (Linguistic)

Phonogly

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning.

Terminology

The word 'phonology' (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.

Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech,[2][3] phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

Phonology vs. Phonetics – the key differences

Phonology is concerned with the abstract, whereas phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of sounds. In phonetics we can see infinite realisations, for example every time you say a ‘p’ it will slightly different than the other times you’ve said it. However, in phonology all productions are the same sound within the language’s phoneme inventory, therefore even though every ‘p’ is produced slightly different every time, the actual sound is the same. This highlights a key difference between phonetic and phonology as even though no two ‘p’s are the same, they represent the same sound in the language.

Phonemes V. Allophones

Phonemes are the meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest units of sound). For example, ‘pat’ and ‘bat’ differ in their first phoneme: the “p” and “b”. Vowels are also phonemes, so “pat” and “pet” differ by a phoneme, too (But phonemes don’t always match up with spelling!). When two words differ by a single phoneme they are known as a minimal pair.

Allophones are different ways to pronounce a phoneme based on its environment in a word. For example, the two allophones of /l/ in “little” are actually produced slightly differently, and the second one sounds slightly deeper. These different “l”s always occur in different environments in words, which is known as “complementary distribution”.

Phonology looks at many different things…

·       Why do related forms differ?

Phonology finds the systematic ways in which the forms differ and explains them

·       What is stored in the mind?

Phonology studies abstract mental entities, such as structures and processes. This contrasts with phonetics, which deals with the actual production and acoustics of the sounds of language.

·       What sounds go together?

Looks at what sounds/sound combinations are accepted and why.

·       How are sounds organized into syllables?

With the use of phonological trees syllables are broken up more easily. Syllables are made up of a rhyme and an onset (any consonants before the rhyme). The rhyme made up of a nucleus (the vowel sound(s) in the syllable, the key component of all syllables) and a coda (any consonants following the nucleus).

What are the differences between languages?

For example, different languages can used different phonemes, or different syllable structures (what sounds can go together to make sequences or words) and phonology identifies these differences.

Sources

Wikipedia

Linguistic Group

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CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning

Definition

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), British, or Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)/Computer-Aided Language Instruction (CALI), American, is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning". CALL embraces a wide range of information and communications technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning environment and Web-based distance learning. It also extends to the use of corpora and concordancers, interactive whiteboards, Computer-mediated communication (CMC), language learning in virtual worlds, and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL).[5]

The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the general term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3) and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of professional associations worldwide.

An alternative term, technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), also emerged around the early 1990s: e.g. the TELL Consortium project, University of Hull.

The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centred materials that allow learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive learning and individualised learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what has already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require additional support.

The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist, cognitive, constructivist) and second-language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's monitor hypothesis.

A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

Technologies Used in CALL Instruction

·       Software

Software used in a CALL environment can be designed specifically for foreign/second language learning or adapted for this purpose. Most language textbook publishers offer educational software of some sort, whether it is meant to support a paper textbook or to stand alone for self-study.

Most programs designed for language learning are tutorials. These generally are drill programs that consist of a brief introduction plus a series of questions to which the learner responds and then the computer gives some kind of feedback. With these kinds of programs, the material to be learned may already be programmed in by the publisher, which is more common, or may allow the instructor to program in the material to be learned.

·       Internet-based

The World Wide Web was launched in 1992 reaching the general public by 1993, opening up new possibilities in CALL.

Internet activities vary considerably, from online versions of software (where the learner interacts with a networked computer), to computer-mediated communication (where the learner interacts with other people via the computer), to applications that combine these two elements.

Role Changes For Teachers And Students

·       Teachers

Although the integration of CALL into a foreign language program can lead to great anxiety among language teachers, researchers consistently claim that CALL changes, sometimes radically, the role of the teacher but does not eliminate the need for a teacher altogether. Instead of handing down knowledge to students and being the center of students’ attention, teachers become guides as they construct the activities students are to do and help them as students complete the assigned tasks. In other words, instead of being directly involved in students’ constructions of the language, the teacher interacts with students primarily to facilitate difficulties in using the target language (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) as use the language to interact with the computer and/or other people.

·       Students

Students, too, need to adjust their expectations of their participation in the class in order to use CALL effectively. Rather than passively absorbing information, learners must negotiate meaning and assimilate new information through interaction and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, be that person a classmate or someone outside of the classroom entirely. Learners must also learn to interpret new information and experiences on their own terms. However, because the use of technology redistributes teachers’ and classmates’ attentions, less-able students can become more active participants in the class because class interaction is not limited to that directed by the teacher. Moreover more shy students can feel free in their own students'-centered environment. This will raise their self-esteem and their knowledge will be improving. If students are performing collaborative project they will do their best to perform it within set time limits.

Problems and Criticisms of CALL Instruction

The impact of CALL in foreign language education has been modest. [4] Several reasons can be attributed to this.

The first is the limitations of the technology, both in its ability and availability. First of all, there is the problem with cost and the simple availability of technological resources such as the Internet (either non-existent as can be the case in many developing country or lack of bandwidth, as can be the case just about anywhere). However, the limitations that current computer technology has can be problematic as well. While computer technology has improved greatly in the last three decades, demands placed on CALL have grown even more so. One major goal is to have computers with which students can have true, human-like interaction, esp. for speaking practice; however, the technology is far from that point. Not to mention that if the computer cannot evaluate a learner’s speech exactly, it is almost no use at all.

Sumber

Wikipedia

elt.wikipedia

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Too Many Bananas. Short Story.

Link of the audio story

Too Many Bananas

The Story

Mr. Srinivas was having a very bad day. Nobody wanted the sweet, ripe the bananas he was growing on his farm. Not his family, not his neighbor, not his friends, not the traders who could sell the bananas in far away markets., and not even his cows. “No, thank you.” They all said. “the bananas are too sweet, but we have had too many. We cannot eat anymore.” Poor Mr. Srinivas. What was he to do now with his rich harvest od bananas ? He decided to seek help from the Farmer’s Centre in Doddoru, a big town near his village. Off he went carrying the best crop of bananas. Surely someone there have a good idea for him. A few days later, Mr. Srinivas returned home looking very happy. He went back to growing bananas in his farm. But he didn’t offer the food to anyone anymore. Not to his family, not to his neighbor, not to his friends, not to the traders wo could sell bananas in far away market, and not even to his cows. Everyone became very curious. Where were all the bananas going ? one day, neighbor Shivanna arranged a very big pooja. The priest ask him to get 108 ripe bananas as an offering to the gods. Shivanna ran to Mr. Srinivas. “I’m sorry for saying no to you before, but now I need 108 ripe of bananas. Can you help me please ?” Mr. Srinivas tapped his chin. “well, my crop has just been cut, but let me see what can I do. You may start your Pooja. I will surely come.” And the pooja started.  The whole village came to watch. The priest began chanting. Soon it became time to offer bananas to the gods. Just then, in came Mr. Srinivas carrying a big bag. From the bag, he carefully took out 27 packets and lait them out before the holy fire. Each packet was carefully wrapped in banana leaf. On each one was writer “High Quality Banana Halwa, S.S. Farms” Mr. Srinivas offered one to the priest. “each one has the pulp of 4 bananas, There are 27 packets, so here are your 108 ripe bananas.” The priest was so surprised that he forgot to chant. In the silence, one child began to laugh. Soon the whole village  was laughing and clapping. Now we know what Mr. Srinivas Does with all the bananas that he grows.

Thank You

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Padang Infographic

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Soekarna-Hatta International Airport

            Hei everyone. Long time no see. Today I will give a video about our journey to Soekarno-Hatta International Airport. We went to the terminal 2F International Departure. Many things we saw in there at that moment. We went to the Departure Lounge, many Signpost we met there. We also went to Check in Pool and also we met some officer there. But we couldn’t go far because it took some permission to get further there. So I think this is our video of slide photos of our journey in International Airport Soekarno-Hatta. 

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Travel Documents

we need travel document to travel around the world. because document travel is like a gateway in ticket for enter a country. here are some kind of travel documents :

Passport

A passport is a travel document, usually issued by a country's government, that certifies the identity and nationality of its holder primarily for the purpose of international travel

Types of Passport

Passport (also called tourist passport or regular passport) – The most common form of passport, issued to citizens and other nationals. Occasionally, children are registered within the parents' passport, making it equivalent to a family passport.

• ·     Official passport (also called service passport) – Issued to government employees for work-related travel, and their accompanying dependants.

• ·     Diplomatic passport – Issued to diplomats of a country and their accompanying dependents for official international travel and residence. Accredited diplomats of certain grades may be granted diplomatic immunity by a host country, but this is not automatically conferred by holding a diplomatic passport. Any diplomatic privileges apply in the country to which the diplomat is accredited; elsewhere diplomatic passport holders must adhere to the same regulations and travel procedures as are required of other nationals of their country.

• ·      Emergency passport (also called temporary passport) – Issued to persons whose passports were lost or stolen, without time to obtain a replacement. Laissez-passer are also used for this purpose.

• ·       Collective passport – Issued to defined groups for travel together to particular destinations, such as a group of school children on a school trip.

• ·     Family passport – Issued to an entire family. There is one passport holder, who may travel alone or with other family members included in the passport. A family member who is not the passport holder cannot use the passport for travel without the passport holder.[citation needed] Few countries now issue family passports; for example, all the EU countries and Canada require each child to have his or her own passport

Visa

A visa (from the Latin charta visa, meaning "paper which has been seen")  is a conditional authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter, remain within, or to leave that country.

Types of Visa

• ·         Private visa, for private visits by invitation from residents of the visited country.
• ·         Tourist visa, for a limited period of leisure travel, no business activities allowed.
• ·     Visa for medical reasons, for undertaking diagnostics or a course of treatment in the visited country's hospitals or other medical facilities.
• ·   Business visa, for engaging in commerce in the country. These visas generally preclude permanent employment, for which a work visa would be required.
• ·    Working holiday visa, for individuals traveling between nations offering a working holiday program, allowing young people to undertake temporary work while traveling.
• ·   Athletic or artistic visa, issued to athletes and performing artists (and their supporting staff) performing at competitions, concerts, shows and other events.

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Tugas Makalah

Makalah Kewirausahaan

Usaha Jasa

“OK Laundry”

Nama  :

1.    Abraham Bob Ellson (10615045)

2.    Anastasia Dwi Astuti (10615655)

3.    Evyn Oka Rarasyaty (12615311)

4.    Monika Tirta Uli (14615313)

5.    Restya Amira (15615782)

Kelas :  2SA06

                                                                                                           

                                                                                             

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA

2017

Bab I

PENDAHULUAN

         Kewirausahaan merupakan kemampuan kreatif dan inovatif seseorang yang dijadikan dasar, kiat, dan sumber daya untuk mencari peluang menuju sukses. Di Indonesia, sejalan dengan perkembangan dan tantangan seperti adanya krisis ekonomi, pemahaman kewirausahaan baik melalui pendidikan formal maupun pelatihan-pelatihan di segala lapisan masyarakat kewirausahaan menjadi berkembang.

Di zaman modern ini, kaum perempuan mempunyai peluang yang sama dengan pria untuk berkarir di luar rumah. Hal ini menyebabkan pekerjaan rumah tidak lagi ditangani sepenuhnya oleh sang ibu. Salah satu gaya hidup modern dari masyarakat kota adalah mencuci pakaian di tempat-tempat khusus atau dikenal dengan laundry. Dengan mengeluarkan sejumlah uang mereka tidak dipusingkan lagi dengan masalah pakaian kotor. Hal ini memberikan peluang usaha tersendiri, karena kebutuhan akan pelayanan pencucian pakaian ini terus meningkat.

Dikota-kota besar khususnya, gerai-gerai laundry terus tumbuh. Namun bagi masyarakat menengah, biaya laundry ternama masih menjadi perhitungan. Alternatif yang bisa dipilih adalah laundry kiloan. Laundry kiloan juga pilihan yang tepat bagi yang ingin membuka usaha jenis ini dengan modal yang tidak terlalu besar. Dengan bermodalkan mesin cuci dan ruangan tempat usaha yang memadai, serta didukung lokasi yang strategis, membuat prospek usaha ini semakin bagus.

A.     Judul Usaha: USAHA JASA LAUNDRY “OK LAUNDRY”

B.      Jenis Kegiatan:

      Usaha jasa laundry yang akan kami dirikan adalah di bidang jasa yang menawarkan jasa mencuci pakaian. Alasan dalam memilih usaha jasa laundry, kami dasarkan atas pertimbangan sebagai berikut :

1.      Perubahan gaya hidup dan tuntutan kesibukan, banyak mahasiswa, karyawan, dan ibu rumah tangga, yang tidak memiliki waktu untuk mencuci pakaian mereka, dan menyerahkannya pada usaha laundry kiloan.

2.      Memanfaatkan gaya hidup malas mencuci, mungkin terutama untuk orang yang tinggal di kost.

3.      Kondisi cuaca saat ini yang mengakibatkan pakaian sering lebih mudah menjadi kotor, bahkan dimusim penghujan, dengan mencuci manual pasti akan sulit menjadi kering, oleh karenanya banyak yang menyerahkan pakaian kotor mereka ke laundry.

4.      Trend mencuci di laundry sudah menjadi bagian dari gaya hidup masyarakat.

C.      Tujuan Kegiatan :

Tujuan dari didirikannya usaha jasa laundry ini adalah:

1.      Memanfaatkan peluang yang dapat menghasilkan uang.

2.      Melatih jiwa berwirausaha dikalangan pelajar atau mahasiswa.

3.      Membuka lapangan pekerjaan.

4.      Menyediakan jasa kepada masyarakat.

BAB II

METODE PELAKSANAAN

A.     Produk :

Produk usaha ini adalah jasa laundry, yaitu jasa pencucian pakaian.

B.      Proses Produksi :

Pencucian pakaian dilakukan dengan proses sebagai berikut :

1.      Pakaian kotor dipilah dan dikelompokkan sesuai dengan pemiliknya.

2.      Pakaian dibungkus dan ditimbang beratnya.

3.      Pakaian dicuci dengan menggunakan mesin pencuci pakaian.

4.      Setelah pakaian dicuci bersih, pakaian dikeringkan.

5.      Setelah pakaian kering, pakaian kemudian disetrika.

6.      Pakaian yang telah rapih dikemas dan siap dikembalikan ke pelanggan.

C.      Lokasi / Tempat Produksi :

Usaha ini direncanakan akan didirikan di dekat tempat kost, kontrakan atau di dalam perumahan yaitu di daerah Pondok Gede Agung, Jl. Arjuna, Jatirahayu, Bekasi. Dengan jam buka usaha yaitu pukul 08.00 – 21.00 WIB.

D.     Target Pemasaran :

      Segmen pasar yang dibidik untuk sementara waktu adalah masyarakat di daerah Bekasi dan sekitarnya ,yaitu ibu-ibu yang bertempat tinggal di dalam perumahan maupun mahasiswa atau pegawai kantor. Diperkirakan dengan jumlah penduduk kota Bekasi dengan tingkat konsumtif yang sangat tinggi akan menggunakan jasa laundry ini.

E.      Cara Pemasaran :

      Strategi pemasaran yang dilakukan adalah dengan cara memasang pengumuman melalui brosur dan papan nama didepan lokasi laundry, serta dengan menawarkan paket-paket menarik yang berbeda dari laundry-laundry yang lain.

Adapun penawaran menarik yang akan berikan adalah sebagai berikut :

1.      Laundry 5 kali cucian, gratis 1 kg cucian.

2.      Paket laundry :

a. Biasa ® Lama pencucian 2 hari  -  Biaya Rp. 2.500,-/kg

b. Kilat ® Lama pencucian ½ hari  -  Biaya Rp. 3.500,-/kg

3.      Tersedia fasilitas delivery/antar jemput cucian.

4.      Proses pencucian terpisah masing-masing pelanggan.

5.      Hasil cucian bersih, wangi, rapih, dan siap pakai.

6.      Pendaftaran untuk member/pelanggan digratiskan.

BAB III

Peralatan dan Perlengkapan

A.     Divisi Counter/Penerimaan Order:

Di counter atau tempat menerima order laundry, peralatan yang dipersiapkan adalah :

1.      Lemari Penyimpanan

2.      Meja

3.      Timbangan Duduk (10kg atau 25kg)

4.      Alat Tulis

5.      Nota Bon

6.      Buku Administrasi

7.      Tag Gun (tagging) + label tagging

8.      Plasik kresek  jumbo.

B.      Divisi Pencucian

Di tempat penyucian / ruang cuci, peralatan yg dipersiapkan adalah :

1.      Rak baju Kotor

2.      Takaran Kimia (untuk cairan)

3.      Ember untuk perendaman

4.      Brush (brush baju & sikat gigi)

5.      Gantungan Baju (Hanger)

6.      Keranjang

7.      Jemuran / Tempat menggantung pakaian

8.      Jepitan Pakaian

C.      Divisi Finishing

Di tempat finishing atau penyetrikaan dan packing peralatan yg dipersiapkan adalah:

1.      Meja setrika

2.      Sprayer

3.      Gantungan/Hanger

4.      Plastic Packing (ukuran 30×50, 35×50, 40×60, 60×100)

5.      Stapler / Hekter ukuran sedang

6.      Lakban

7.      Rak penyimpanan pakaian yg telah selesai dipacking

D.     Divisi Promosi dan Marketing

Untuk kegiatan promosi usaha, perlengkapan yg dipersiapkan adalah:

1.         Kartu Nama

2.         Flyer Daftar Harga

3.         Spanduk / Banner

4.         Neon Box

5.         Proposal Kerjasama Agen

BAB IV

ANALISA USAHA

Rencana biaya usaha yang akan dilakukan adalah sebagai berikut :

A.     Penentuan harga pokok

Setiap Kg pakaian kami beri harga Rp. 2.500,00

Target usaha tiap hari 40kg, atau 1200 kg per bulan.

B.      Moda Awal :

Perlengkapan :

·         Mesin cuci dan pengering                                                 = Rp 7.000.000,-

·         Setrika listrik (uap) 3 unit                                                  = Rp 1.500.000,-

·         Meja + kursi untuk setrika                                                = Rp 750.000,-

·         Timbangan besi                                                                 = Rp 250.000,-

·         Meja administrasi +kursi                                                  = Rp 250.000,-

·         Keranjang plastik(besar), hanger, rak penyimpanan        = Rp 750.000,-

Ø  Total biaya                                                                        = Rp 10.500.000,-

C.      Perhitungan Laba/Rugi per Bulan

1)      Pendapatan :

Order cucian per hari               Rp 150.000,0 x 30                   = Rp 4.500.000,-

2)      Biaya-biaya :

·         Sewa tempat                                                                     = Rp 500.000,-

·         Sabun pewangi, pelembut                                                = Rp 300.000,-

·         Listrik                                                                                = Rp 300.000,-

·         Biaya penyusutan peralatan                                             = Rp 218.729,-

·         Gaji 5 orang pegawai @ Rp 500.000,-                              = Rp 2.500.000,-

·         Lain-lain                                                                            = Rp 100.000,-

Ø  Total biaya                                                                        = Rp 3.018.729,-

Ø  Laba Bersih                                                                       = Rp 1.681.271,-

D.     Analisis SWOT

Dalam analisis SWOT digunakan sebagai dasar untuk memberikan gambaran terhadap situasi perusahaan meliputi sumber daya internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dengan situasi eksternal (peluang dan ancaman). Dari hasil rencana usaha tersebut dapat diketahui strengths (kekuatan), weakness (kelemahan), oppurtunities (peluang) dan threats sebagai berikut :

Ø  Strengths

·         Pelayanan yang bagus

·         Tenaga kerjanya memiliki skill kerja yang bagus

·         Lokasi strategis

·         Harga murah

Ø  Weakness

·         Persaingan dengan pesaing yang sangat ketat

Ø  Oppurtunities

·         Banyaknya konsumen yang membutuhkan jasa laundry

·         Konsumen menginginkan harga murah tetapi tidak mengecewakan hasilnya

Ø  Threats

·         Kehilangan konsumen akibat dari adanya pesaing yang sudah dulu ada

·         Banyaknya masyarakat yang memiliki mesin cuci di rumah

BAB V

PENUTUP

Peluang usaha laundry dapat dikategorikan cukup luas, karena melihat aspek pemasaran yang sasarannya mudah diidentifikasi, seperti faktor kesibukan, tidak mau capek, kurang air bersih, sampai pada menginginkan bau harum dan cucian halus merupakan suatu peluang yang jelas dalam analisis peluang bisnis ini.

Pendanaan usaha ini memang tidak kecil, namun keuntungan yang didapat diperkirakan memenuhi kebutuhan usaha sehingga laba yang diharapakan tercapai, dengan demikian usaha laundry layak direncanakan serta direalisasikan sebagi pilihan usaha bisnis.

Sebagai wirausaha yang sudah mengenyam pendidikan, kami tentu tidak akan membiarkan usaha ini menurunkan pelayanannya kepada para pelanggan. Kami akan terus mengembangkan dan memperbaiki pelayanan dan kualitas, hal itu akan terus dinomor satukan tempat usaha kami.

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